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Common movement patterns in competitive cycling

This is an excerpt from Dynamic Human Anatomy 3rd Edition With HKPropel Access by William C. Whiting.

In chapter 9, we explored the fundamentals of cycling as a common movement pattern. Here, we extend our discussion to competitive (i.e., not recreational) cycling. Competitive cycling, commonly referred to as cycle sport, involves competitive activity using bicycles. Cycle sport includes a number of categories, including road-racing, track cycling, mountain biking (MTB), bicycle motocross (BMX), cyclo-cross, and cycle speedway (figure 11.9).

Road-Racing

Road-racing, the most popular form of professional bicycle racing, typically is performed on paved roads over a circuit (course) with a set number of laps, or from place to place. Road races are conducted in a variety of formats. One-day races cover varying distances. The longest is the Milan–San Remo race (Italy), which covers 299 km (186 miles). Stage races are multiday events consisting of several races, or stages. The winner is the rider with the lowest composite time across all stages. Three-week stage races are termed Grand Tours, the most famous of which is the grueling Tour de France held annually in July for men. Women compete in the Tour de France Femmes, a 9-stage race that covered 1165 km (724 miles) in 2025. The Tour de France races are among the most demanding of all athletic events.

An interesting study by Ross and colleagues (2009) replicated the route of the 2007 Tour de France using eight well-trained male cyclists who completed 20 stages with two interspersed rest days. Among the findings were a reduction in knee extensor strength, which the authors concluded was a result of both central and peripheral processes, reduced sarcolemmal excitability and impairment of contractile mechanisms even after 18 hours of recovery, and a continued reduction in corticomotor output even after 2 days of rest. 

Sargent and colleagues (2024) used validated fitness trackers to monitor the nighttime sleep and autonomic activity of eight male cyclists competing in the 2022 Tour de France and nine female cyclists racing in the Tour de France Femmes. The authors reported that the cyclists obtained a reasonable amount of good-quality sleep during most of the competition, but some aspects of recovery were compromised following the most demanding days of racing in the mountain stages.

Time trial races involve individuals (ITT) or teams (TTT) competing for the fastest time over a fixed distance across flat, rolling terrain, or mountain roads. Time trial race distances typically range between 20 and 40 km (12-25 miles). Shorter time trial races (<5 km), termed prologues, are often included at the beginning of or within a stage race. 

Research on time trial racing has shown that different pacing strategies (e.g., self-paced versus all-out start followed by specified power level) do not affect oxygen uptake, rating of perceived effort or exertion (RPE), and heart rate, and that different all-out start strategies do not provide additional performance benefits when compared to a self-paced strategy (Vieira-Cavalcante et al., 2022). Scholler and colleagues (2023) compared time trial performance to endurance cycling and reported that the time trial impaired neural efficiency and increased the RPE of cyclists in a “severe intensity zone.” In addition, Fintelman and colleagues (2015) reported that lowering the torso angle (to improve aerodynamics) when cycling during a time trial increased oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, and minute ventilation but concluded that the aerodynamic gains outweighed the physiological or biomechanical disadvantages in trained cyclists.

Ultra-distance cycling races are single-stage events in which the race clock runs continuously from start to finish. At a minimum, ultra-distance races span 100 miles (161 km); at a maximum, they can reach distances such as those in the Race Across America (RAAM) (~3000 miles [4800 km]), the Transcontinental Race across Europe (3,200-4,200 km [1988-2610 miles]), and the Asian Ultracycling Championship (3,655 km [2,271 miles]). 

In a fascinating case study, Knechtle and colleagues (2022) reported a biophysical characterization of a remarkable ultracyclist, Christoph Strasser (Austria), who in 2021 became the first cyclist to break the 1,000 km (~621 miles) barrier in a 24-hour self-paced time trial by completing 1,026 km. In doing so, he broke the world record (WR). The case study report compared Strasser’s new WR performance to his earlier performance in breaking his own then-WR of 896 km (557 miles) set in 2015. In comparing a variety of aerodynamic and physiological factors, the authors found that increasing his mechanical efficiency by 1% allowed Strasser to exceed the 1,000 km mark. They concluded that

Changes in strategies (i.e., technical changes, aero position) adopted in the new WR may explain the performance improvement and differences between the two WRs. The marginal gains concept can be an important insight for future athletes and coaches to consider during their long-term planning. (p. 10)

Track Cycling

Track cycling is contested on a track with two straightaways and banked curves. It is most popular in Europe, especially in France, Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Track distances have varied since the sport’s inception more than 150 years ago. Since 1990, international tracks have had a standard length of 250 m (820 ft). Indoor arenas for track cycling are called velodromes (figure 11.10). Bicycles used in track cycling are specially designed (fixed-gear, non-free-wheeling, without brakes, narrow and highly inflated tires). On a 250 m track, the curves are banked at about 45°.

Track cycling competitions are of two general formats: sprint races and endurance races. Sprint races generally are short-distance (3-8 laps), all-out efforts using maximum power. Sprint racing includes individual sprints, team sprints, track time trials, and Keirin (a strategic form of sprint racing popular in Japan in which cyclists start from a standstill, are paced by a motorbike [derny] up to 50 kph, and then sprint for the remainder of the race).

Researchers have studied various biomechanical and physiological aspects of sprint cycling. Among their conclusions are the following: 

• “Maximal cycling power is influenced by pedaling rate, muscle size and fiber composition, and fatigue. Cycling speed is resisted by aerodynamic and rolling friction, and any imbalance in applied versus required power results in changes in system energy. Sprinting performances arise from interaction of power production, resistance, and changes in energy” (Martin et al., 2007, pp. 5-6).
• “[S]ubstantial power reduction during fatiguing sprint cycling is accompanied by marked reductions in the EMG activity of bi-articular GAS (gastrocnemius) and RF (rectus femoris) and co-activation level between GAS and main power producer muscles (GMAX (gluteus maximus) and VAS (vastus lateralis and medialis obliquus). The observed changes in RF and GAS EMG activity are likely to result in a redistribution of the joint powers and alterations in the orientation of the pedal forces” (O’Bryan et al., 2014, p. 11). 
• In a comparison of sprint cycling to submaximal cycling, “[s]print induced a very large increase of EMG activity level for the hip flexors … and the knee flexors and hip extensors, whereas plantar flexors and knee extensors demonstrated a lower increase…. Results clearly suggest a change in the relative contribution of the different muscles to the power production between (submaximal) and sprint, and provide evidence that EMG activity level is not systematically maximal for all muscles involved in the all-out sprint cycling task” (Dorel et al., 2012, p. 2154). 
• “Track sprint cyclists’ ‘leg strength’ increased following a strength training intervention and this was accompanied by a significant increase in average crank power. There was no impairment of the key mechanical features of maximal cycling following the strength training intervention, indicating that cycling performance was not impaired due to dissimilarities in movement tendencies between the gym-based strength training intervention and maximal cycling” (Burnie et al., 2022, pp. 1322-1323). 

Technological advances often allow researchers to investigate variables in ways that previously were not possible. With regard to cycling research, the development of power meters starting in the late 1980s has allowed researchers to measure real-time and field-based cycling data by mounting power meters (consisting of multiple strain gauges and electronics) on the pedal or crank of the bicycle. These devices can calculate mechanical power from miniscule deformations of the pedal and crank complex. Such field-based data allow researchers to develop cycling performance models (e.g., Ferguson et al., 2023). 

Endurance track cycling, in contrast to sprint track cycling, involves racing over varying distances around the velodrome track. Endurance races include individual pursuit, team pursuit, scratch races, points races, Madison (an entertaining and often chaotic relay race, named after Madison Square Garden in New York City, where the first race was held in 1891), and Omnium (a multiday, multi-event competition that can include a scratch race, individual pursuit, elimination race, time trial, flying lap, and a points race). The Olympic Omnium now includes four races: the Scratch Race, Tempo Race, Elimination Race, and Points Race.

Due to the many differences between sprint and endurance cycling, racing cyclists specialize in one or the other, especially at the elite level. Studies have compared various factors in sprint and endurance cyclists. For example, Klich and colleagues (2020) compared the quadriceps muscle stiffness (QM_stiff) and the thickness of quadriceps (QT_stiff) and patellar (PT_stiff) tendons in 15 elite sprint cyclists versus 15 elite endurance cyclists. The authors reported that sprint cyclists had significantly higher QT_thick and PT_thick, and higher QM_stiff as compared to endurance track cyclists. They concluded that “The observed changes in PT_thick and QT_thick were mostly related to adaptation-based vascularity and hypertrophy processes” (p. 1). 

Muros and colleagues (2022) compared anthropometric differences between world-class professional track cyclists based on specialty (endurance versus sprint). They found that male sprinters showed a greater body mass index (BMI), muscle mass, and limb girth, and a lower fat percentage than endurance cyclists. Female sprinters also evidenced higher BMI than endurance cyclists, although there was no difference in fat percentage or muscle mass. 

Mountain Biking

MTB involves riding specially designed bicycles off-road in a natural, hilly environment. Mountain bikes are built for durability in navigating rough terrain. Modifications for these bikes include heavy-duty shocks and suspensions, wider and larger wheels and tires, enhanced frame strength, and hydraulic disc brakes. Competitive MTB encompasses numerous categories, including cross-country (XC), trail, all-mountain, enduro, downhill (including large jumps and drops), four-crossor dual slalom, freeride, dirt jumping, trials (hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles), marathon, and bikepacking.

Research over the past decade or so has reported the following with regard to XC and downhill MTB:

• Recreational downhill MTB provides a moderate-to-vigorous exercise intensity associated with legitimate physiological demands and health-related fitness benefits (Burr et al., 2012).
• Ergonomic saddle design (raised rear, longitudinal dip, subtle lateral instability or “Active” technology) can reduce low back pain (LBP) (Röhrl et al., 2023).
• Reducing propulsive work during descent can improve recovery without hindering performance (Miller et al., 2016).
• Wheel diameter generally has no influence on muscle (gastrocnemius, vastus lateralis, BB, triceps brachii) activity during MTB (Hurst et al., 2016).
• Gross efficiency (GE), defined as the ratio of power output to energy expenditure, may be a useful tool for evaluating MTB athletes (Inoue et al., 2021).
• Downhill cyclists may be at risk of experiencing traumatic brain injuries. Also, downhill course design influences the number and magnitude of head accelerations (Hurst et al., 2018).

A current comprehensive review of XC MTB is provided by Arriel et al. (2022).

Bicycle Motocross

BMX has its early-1970s roots in Southern California, where children began racing their bicycles on dirt tracks. BMX’s popularity exploded in the early 1980s, and it is now a worldwide activity and competitive sport. BMX includes both racing and freestyle forms, and it was included in the Olympic Games for the first time in the Beijing Summer Games (2008).

While the preponderance of literature on BMX focuses on injury (much of it during the 1980s in response to the sport’s growth during that decade), some research has focused on performance-related issues. Among the research findings are the following:

• Despite the brief period of pedaling during BMX racing, both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems are important (Daneshfar et al., 2021).
• Both oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent fuel substrate pathways are essential determinants of BMX performance (Louis et al., 2013).
• The technique of “pumping” (up-and-down body movements without pedaling) contributes to velocity production without the cost of additional muscle activity (Rylands et al., 2017).
• A higher gear ratio results in BMX riders achieving higher power outputs with a decrease in their start time (Rylands et al., 2017).
• Motor imagery training significantly improves relative peak power in sub-elite BMX riders (Daneshfar et al., 2022). 

Cyclo-Cross and Cycle Speedway

Cyclo-cross is a form of bicycle racing in which cyclists navigate a course that includes paved roads, wooded trails, hills, and obstacles that require riders to repeatedly dismount, carry, or remount their bikes. Cyclo-cross is most popular in countries with strong road cycling traditions (e.g., Belgium, France, the Netherlands). 

Cycle speedway is a category of bicycle racing that involves pedaling around short, oval dirt tracks, typically between 70 and 90 m in length. Speedway racing grew rapidly in Great Britain following World War II, especially in London. Races consist of (usually) four laps around the short track. 

Scant research literature exists on the performance aspects of both cyclo-cross and cycle speedway.

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