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What performance obstacles do master athletes face?

This is an excerpt from Dietary Supplements in Sport Performance by Kimberly Mueller,Lonnie Lowery.

Older athletes must be aware of the physiological changes that result from aging in order to maintain high levels of performance. For the endurance athlete, peak performance is typically maintained until age 35. Performance in strength and power sports is similar, with athletes who stay injury free often increasing in strength through middle age. Master athletes commonly experience fat gain, slowed recovery time, nagging injuries, and diminished performance. Even so, many master athletes continue to conquer the physiological changes of aging: Jenny Hitchings, a female American distance runner, broke the 60+ womens world record mark for the marathon at the 2023 Chicago Marathon. Oksana Chusovitina, gymnast from Uzbekistan, received a standing ovation from her fellow Olympians as she concluded her record-setting eighth Olympic appearance at the 2020 Tokyo Games at age 46. Female Brazilian soccer legend Formiga, at age 43, became the oldest soccer player to ever compete at the Olympics in the 2020 Tokyo Games. Two NFL quarterbacks, Tom Brady and Brett Favre, led their teams to the playoffs while in their 40s, with Brady being the oldest quarterback in history to win a Super Bowl with a win in Super Bowl LIII against the Rams—his sixth Super Bowl win. As simple as it may sound, peak performance for all ages across all sports relies heavily on two key controllable factors: smart training and proper nutrition. Athletes who optimize these factors will continue to defy odds and break records as well as extend quality of longevity.

Performance Obstacles for Master Athletes

A number of physiological changes are responsible for decreases in performance with age. Impacts on endurance performance are caused by significant declines in maximal aerobic capacity (V̇O₂max)—although anaerobic threshold and exercise economy are well maintained, V̇O₂max declines roughly 5% to 10% per decade after age 30. These changes are the result of reduced cardiac output, a product of maximum heart rate and stroke volume. Maximum heart rate declines at a rate of 0.7 beats per year starting in early adulthood. Mild decreases in stroke volume are observed in older endurance athletes, who typically have stroke volumes that are roughly 80% to 90% of the volume typical of younger trained counterparts.

There is still considerable debate about whether performance declines are a natural result of aging or a reduction in the intensity and amount of training typically practiced by older athletes. It has been found that drops in total weekly running distance of approximately 15 mi (24 km) may cause V̇O₂max to drop by 2.4%. The loss of muscle mass and mitochondrial efficiency that occurs with aging can also affect V̇O₂max. A loss of 3 kg (6.6 lb) of lean body mass can drop V̇O₂max by 4.5%.

Unfortunately, the impact of aging on strength and power athletes is less understood. Most significantly for these types of athletes, aging is associated with losses in muscle mass and a decline in the number of fast-twitch muscle fibers, resulting in reductions in speed, strength, and power. Metabolic changes within the muscle such as enzyme activity and alterations in the ATP-PC energy system can also negatively affect anaerobic exercise. Further, tendonitis and tendinosis can weaken musculoskeletal connection and force transfer, even leading to evulsion injury, which can set back training many months. However, master athletes should take heart in knowing that although several physiological systems begin to decline with age, these systems are still very adaptable and responsive to training. Both strength and power and endurance master athletes can achieve significant improvements in performance through training.

Other important changes associated with aging include declines in resting metabolic rate (RMR), which can result in increased body fat and weight gain. RMR decreases by about 10% from early childhood to adulthood and another 10% from adulthood to the 60s. Several factors have been shown to directly influence RMR: thyroid hormones; genetics, body or environmental temperature; and stress. Other factors related to RMR are body surface area, total body weight, lean body mass, sex, age, and aerobic fitness. Of these factors, there seems to be the strongest correlation between lean body mass and RMR. When metabolically active muscle tissue is lost and replaced with less metabolically active adipose or fat tissue, RMR inevitably declines. Fortunately, RMR can be kept elevated by master athletes who continue to train at high levels while meeting individual nutritional needs.

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AGING AND BONE HEALTH

A progressive decline in calcium content in the bones begins around age 30, increasing risk for stress fractures and development of osteoporosis. Declines in sex hormones worsen this loss. Other risk factors that exacerbate the aging effect on bone include smoking, alcohol intake, inactivity, and poor nutrition. More than 25 million people in the United States alone are affected by osteoporosis, leading to as many as 1.5 million bone fractures per year. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data, prevalence of osteoporosis is on the rise for those over 50, increasing from 9.4% in 2007-2008 to 12.6% in 2017-2018 (Sarafrazi et al., 2021). Indeed, in the United States, the incidence of the disease has been projected to grow by 32% between 2010 and 2030 (Li et al., 2024).

Women tend to be more affected by osteoporosis, especially after menopause when levels of estrogen, a bone-protecting hormone, are significantly reduced. According to NHANES data, the most significant rise in osteoporosis rates among those over 50 occurred in women, with rates increasing by 5.6% from 2007-2008 to 2017-2018 (Sarafrazi et al., 2021). It has previously been estimated that one-third of all women will experience osteoporosis-related fractures in their lifetimes, but with increasing rates of osteoporosis, these numbers will also likely rise (Riggs & Melton, 1992).

Mortality has been shown to increase 2.8 to 4 times during the first 3 months after a hip fracture (Moyer, 2013). Thus, it is critical to address measures that help prevent and treat osteoporosis. Fortunately, bone health can be maintained with a healthy lifestyle, including proper training, particularly weight-bearing exercise, and a well-balanced, energy-sufficient diet rich in key bone-building nutrients like calcium and vitamin D.

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Aging also affects the immune system. Decreased resistance to infections, increased inflammation, autoimmune activation, lower immune surveillance, and lower vaccination efficiency are all recognized immunological changes. Proper nutrition and certain supplements addressed in this book may assist in preventing some of these changes.

Finally, changes to joint structures and connective tissues can result in pain, dysfunction, and higher rates of inactivity in master athletes. Cartilage, a flexible connective tissue found in many joints, often degenerates over time, a change often responsible for pain and dysfunction. Certain dietary supplements may protect against this degeneration.

More Excerpts From Dietary Supplements in Sport Performance

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